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General Overview

Type of stakeholder

EICS Framework

Region of Reference

Africa
Asia
Australia
Europe
North-America
South-America
World

Description

This intervention refers to the installation and operation of closed-circuit television (CCTV) cameras – specifically cameras that record only (i.e., no live monitoring). CCTV is used to capture and record images in private and public areas such as highways, malls, and private dwellings. In this case, CCTV refers to cameras in and around public transport stations and/or within the vehicles themselves. These recordings can be played back at a later stage to investigate incidents and to identify and apprehend offenders or criminals.

The presence of CCTV in and around public transport aims to deter crime and increase the feeling of safety of passengers and drivers. CCTV in public transport systems is widely used in many developed countries such as the United Kingdom (e.g., all underground tube stations have CCTV), the Netherlands, and Japan, both at stations and on vehicles such as trains, buses, and trams, as well as developing countries such as India and South Africa. [6,13]

Facts/Illustrations/Case studies

It is estimated that there are 4.2 million CCTV cameras in the United Kingdom, one for every 14 citizens.
In the United States, 90% of representatives from 131 transit agencies reported using CCTV at train stations, 75% at train station exits/entrances, and 70% on trains.3

Types of Impact

To/from the stop/station/rank✓
Waiting for train/bus/paratransit✓
In the vehicle✓
At interchanges✓

Area impacted depends on the scale of implementation. Any form of increased surveillance will be beneficial, but this intervention specifically refers to increased surveillance in the public transport space.

Day-time travel✓
Night-time travel✓
Peak-time travel✓
Off peak-time travel✓

CCTV cameras can record continuously (24 hours of the day) therefore all times of the day are impacted. This intervention does not include live monitoring, which could potentially limit the times of day impacted due to staffing requirements.

Bus✓
Train✓
Rideshare✕
4 wheelers informal✓
3 wheelers informal✓
2 wheelers informal✕
Cycling✓
Walking✓

All users - no evidence of projects focusing on particular user groups. Studies have shown that women prefer the physical presence of police/security to technological solutions such as CCTV, as it’s difficult to replace the feeling of safety that being around other people brings.

Girls✓
Boys✓
Adult Women✓
Men✓
Elderly Women✓
LGBTQI+✓

Nearly all modes will be impacted by this intervention. Modes impacted will depend on the scale of implementation and location of implementation.

Resources

Monetary Resource Requirements
The capital cost of installing CCTV cameras is relatively high but is a once-off cost. Considerations must be made for the emergence of newer CCTV technology, causing current cameras to become obsolete and therefore requiring replacement. Operating costs, including electricity, are low, as no staffing is required to operate the technology. Maintenance costs must be considered but are low. Both capital and operational costs depend on the scale of implementation. The greater the scale, the greater the cost.
Capital Cost Requirements Operational Cost Requirements
Non-Monetary Resource Requirements
As CCTV cameras that only record do not require staff to operate them, no skilled staff are needed on a permanent basis. Regular maintenance of the cameras will require skilled staff to be available. Widespread implementation of CCTV cameras in public areas will require a certain level of political and community buy-in due to potential privacy concerns. [1,10]
Skills Time Political Will

SWOT Analysis

Quick to be implemented
Benefits quick to be realised
Relatively low skills required
Scalable to suit budget and need for the resource

Technology will need to be upgraded every few years.
Not effective in parts of the transport system where the intervention is not physically present

Other crime also reduced
Potential to identify and apprehend offenders after incidents occur

Crime displacement - criminals move to areas where there are no CCTV cameras, reducing crime in one area and increasing it in another.
Criminals might continue to commit crimes in areas where CCTV cameras are present by avoiding detection and identification from cameras by obscuring their faces or dressing in a particular way.
Privacy - some citizens might object to being recorded and feel like their privacy rights are being violated.

Effectiveness

Several literature sources indicate this to be an effective measure in improving public safety. A large number of studies reach the same conclusion with regard to effectiveness, so the level of confidence that this measure is effective is high [2,9,10,12]. However, no examples exist where incidences of sexual harassment, specifically, had been reduced upon implementation of this intervention. Additionally, no African examples could be found in the literature.

Perception by (female) passengers
Perception by governing bodies
Level of confidence in these ratings

Implementation

CCTV cameras can be implemented very quickly. Once installed, they are immediately ready for use. The benefits associated with CCTV cameras begin immediately once the cameras are installed and improve as perpetrators become aware of them. [10] Unfortunately, if the cameras are removed, the benefits start to disappear.

Implementation timeframe

0-1 year✓
1-3 years✕
>3 years✕

Timeframe to realise benefits

0-1 year✓
1-3 years✓
>3 years✕

Scale of Implementation

This intervention can be implemented at a local (station or suburb) or city level.

National

Regional

City

Station or
Suburb

Ease of Implementation

If the funding and personnel to install the cameras are available, implementation is simple. Access to a power supply is also an important consideration.

List of References

Africa

1. Basimanyane, D and Gandhi, D. (2019) Striking a balance between CCTV surveillance and the digital right to privacy in South Africa. [8 December 2021].

2. Lamb, G. (n.d.) Closed circuit television (CCTV) and crime prevention. [2 December 2021].

Asia

3. JCBL. (2018) How Effective is CCTV in Buses? [10 December 2021].

Australia

4. Kalms, N. (2021) Shifting the focus on CCTV and women’s safety. [2 December 2021].

Europe

5. Gekoski, A, Gray, JM, Horvath, MAH, Edwards, S, Emirali, A and Adler, JR. (2015) ‘What Works’ in Reducing Sexual Harassment and Sexual Offences on Public Transport Nationally and Internationally: A Rapid Evidence Assessment. London: British Transport Police and Department for Transport.

6. Hempel, L. (2006) CCTV in German Public Transport.[2 December 2021].

7. Norris, C and McCahill, M. (2006) CCTV: Beyond penal modernism? British Journal of Criminology, 46, 97–118.

8. Rajput, A. (2014) Security on the London Underground. [10 December 2021].

9. Priks, M. (2010) The effect of surveillance cameras on crime: Evidence from the Stockholm subway. CESifo working paper.

North America

10. Welsh, B and Farrington, D. (2009) Public Area CCTV and Crime Prevention: An Updated Systematic Review and Meta‐Analysis. Justice Quarterly, 26:4, 716-745.

11. Mazerolle, L, Hurley, D and Chamlin, M. (2002) Social behaviour in public space: an analysis of behavioural adaptations to CCTV. Security Journal, 15, 59-75.

South America

12. Gomez-Cardona, S, Mejia, D and Tobon, S. (2017) The Deterrent Effect of Public Surveillance Cameras on Crime.

World

13. Global Mass Transit. (2014) CCTV Cameras in Transit Systems: Aiming to improve safety and security. [2 December 2021].

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